Vulnérabilité physique et psychologique et dopage en cyclisme de haut niveau : mécanismes explicatifs explicites et implicites, PSYDOPCY-AMA

Summary
The problem of doping in cycling has historical roots and remains a significant issue today, affecting athletes' health and the integrity of the sport. Doping can lead to psychosocial repercussions and tarnish the reputation of the sport, forcing clean athletes to work harder to regain trust. Elite athletes face high pressures, making them vulnerable to doping. Cycling demands physical, mental, and social skills, and the intense pressures can lead to job insecurity and prolonged efforts to maintain performance.

Meta-analyses show that doping behaviors are influenced by situational temptations, attitudes, and social norms. Factors like gender, early sport specialization, and psychological issues also contribute to doping vulnerability. Certain critical periods, such as adolescence and career transitions, increase the risk of doping. Vulnerability situations include physical distress, psychological stress, and inadequate recovery opportunities. Social pressures and unhealthy relationships with coaches also contribute to doping decisions.

Despite existing research, understanding of doping remains imperfect. Current studies often focus on singular aspects of vulnerability, limiting comprehensive understanding. The present study aims to categorize different types of vulnerabilities leading to doping among high-level cyclists.

Methodology

This study utilized a qualitative approach to explore the vulnerability situations that predispose high-level cyclists to doping. The research was conducted between 2020 and 2022 and involved semi-structured interviews conducted via Zoom, allowing for geographically dispersed participants. 

10 French-speaking cyclists (Mage = 49; SD = 14.63), including two women, were interviewed. These participants were either active (n = 3) or retired (n = 7) and were recruited through national cycling federations in France and Quebec. Inclusion criteria were broad, requiring participants to be French speakers and to have engaged in doping at some point in their careers. Recruitment was enhanced with follow-up calls and snowball sampling to increase participation rates.

Interviews were guided by a consistent protocol and recorded using professional equipment. Participants were encouraged to be alone in a quiet, distraction-free environment to ensure candid responses. Researchers prepared by collecting background information on each participant's sporting history through surveys, media, and other sources, enabling a comprehensive biographical sketch to inform the interviews.

The interview guide comprised four sections:
1. Sporting Life: Participants described their athletic careers, significant moments, and their overall experiences in sport.
2. Psychological Factors: Questions explored self-perception, motivation, social context, and daily life outside cycling.
3. Health Behaviors: Participants discussed diet, recovery strategies, and specific vulnerability situations, including their doping experiences.
4. Contextual Details: This section sought to fill gaps in the narrative not covered spontaneously during the interview.

Interviews lasted between 52 and 114 minutes and were transcribed verbatim, with identifying details anonymized. Thematic analysis followed Braun and Clarke’s (2006) framework:
1. Familiarization: Researchers repeatedly read transcripts to understand the content deeply.
2. Initial Coding: Data were systematically coded to identify meaningful segments.
3. Theme Development: Codes were organized into themes and sub-themes.
4. Theme Review: Themes were checked for coherence and refined.
5. Definition and Naming: Final themes were defined and named.

The analysis involved multiple researchers to ensure reliability, using NVivo software for coding. Triangulation and regular meetings among researchers enhanced the credibility of the findings. Participants had the opportunity to review and verify the transcriptions and analysis of their interviews, further ensuring data accuracy and reliability.

Results

This study on doping in cycling and vulnerabilities identified over fifteen different substances used by participants, with EPO being the most prevalent. Cyclists often consumed multiple substances simultaneously, and their usage evolved over their careers. Some doped autonomously, learning methods from online resources or friends, while others did so under organized supervision due to social pressure.

Physical Vulnerability:
1. Physical Exhaustion: All ten athletes cited physical exhaustion as a key driver for doping.
2. Anemia and Deficiencies: Eight athletes doped to counter anemia and deficiencies.
3. Injuries: one athlete doped post-injury to regain form.

Psychological Vulnerability:
1. Negative Affects: all ten participants experienced emotional exhaustion and cognitive fatigue, eight faced depression, and six used doping to manage stress and anxiety.
2. Maladaptive Motivation: motivations included a "win at all costs" attitude, financial pressures, fear of failure, and in some cases, self-sabotage.
3. Moral Disengagement: All participants used mechanisms like euphemisms, responsibility diffusion, and consequence minimization to justify doping.
4. Reduced Sense of Accomplishment: Seven cyclists felt a diminished sense of achievement, contributing to doping behaviors.
5. Doping as Addiction: four cyclists reported a dependency on doping.
6. Eating Disorders: six participants dealt with eating disorders, driven by a desire to maintain a competitive weight.

Situations of Relative Vulnerability:
1. Organized Doping and Social Pressure: Eight cyclists were involved in organized doping, often pressured by team doctors or managers.
2. Control and Harassment: Five cyclists reported experiencing control or harassment, leading some to dope as a coping mechanism.
3. Social Approval: the cyclists' social circles often tacitly supported or encouraged doping.

Contextual Vulnerability:
1. Cycling Culture: All participants linked doping to the cycling culture, especially prevalent before the 1998 Festina scandal.
2. Environmental and Climatic Conditions: Six cyclists cited harsh weather conditions as a reason for doping.
3. Competitive Stakes: High professional and financial stakes prompted five cyclists to dope to secure results and contracts.

These findings illustrate the multifaceted and complex nature of doping in cycling, driven by a combination of physical, psychological, social, and contextual factors.

Significance for Clean Sport

The implications for anti-doping and the clean sport movement are significant. Firstly, the study provides a comprehensive understanding of the vulnerability situations that lead cyclists to doping, including physical, psychological, relational, and contextual factors. This understanding can inform more targeted anti-doping strategies that address these vulnerabilities directly.

Specifically, recognizing the role of psychological vulnerabilities, such as negative affects, in driving doping behaviors highlights the need for support systems and interventions to address athletes' mental well-being. Additionally, understanding the historical context of doping in cycling, where it was once organized and structured within teams, underscores the importance of cultural change within the sport to promote clean practices.

Moreover, acknowledging that doping often serves as a coping mechanism for athletes facing immense pressure and challenges suggests the need for holistic support systems that address the root causes of these pressures, rather than solely focusing on punitive measures against dopers.

The study also suggests that athletes driven by an insatiable desire for success may be more susceptible to doping, indicating the importance of instilling values of integrity and sportsmanship from an early age to mitigate these risks.

Overall, the analytical framework provided by the study can guide future research, improve doping detection and prevention efforts, and create more supportive environments for athletes, ultimately contributing to the promotion of clean sport.